Probability of hospitalisation and death among COVID-19 patients with comorbidity during outbreaks occurring in Mexico City.

Background: We compared the probability of hospitalization and death caused by COVID-19 in patients with comorbidities during three periods defined for this study: first-wave (FW), interwave period (IP), and second-wave (SW) observed in Mexico City. Methods: In this registry-based study, we included individuals over 20 years of age. During the FW (symptomatic), the IP, and the SW (symptomatic and asymptomatic), participants were diagnosed using nasopharyngeal swabs. Symptomatic individuals with risk factors for serious disease or death were referred to the hospital. SARS-CoV-2 infection was defined by RT-qPCR in all hospitalized patients. All data were added to the SISVER database. Bayesian analysis and False Discovery Rate were used for further evaluation. Results: The study included 2 260 156 persons (mean age of 43.1 years). Of these, 8.6% suffered from DM, 11.6% arterial hypertension, and 9.7% obesity. Of the total, 666 694 persons tested positive (29.5%). Of the infected persons, a total of 85 587 (12.8%) were hospitalized: 24 023 in the FW; 16 935 in the IP, and 44 629 in the SW. Of the hospitalized patients, there were 42 979 deaths (50.2%), in the FW, 11 964 (49.8%), in the IP, 6794 (40.1%), and in the SW 24 221 (54.3%). The probability of death among individuals hospitalized with or without comorbidities increased consistently in all age groups. A significant increase in the Fatality Rate was observed in individuals with comorbidities (1.36E-19< = FDR< = 3.36E-2). A similar trend was also observed in individuals without comorbidities (1.03E-44< = FDR< = 5.58E-4). Conclusions: The data from this study show a considerable increase in the number of detected cases of infection between the FW and SW. In addition, 12.8% of those infected were hospitalized for severe COVID-19. A high mortality rate was observed among hospitalized patients (>50%). An age-dependent probability of death was observed with a positive trend in hospitalized patients with and without comorbidities.

Suicide after and during the COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico City

Objectives: Prior research has indicated that no increase in suicides occurred immediately following the declaration of the COVID-19 emergency in Mexico City. Here we examine longer-term overall suicide trends and trends according to basic demographic groups. Methods: We used interrupted time-series analysis to model trends in monthly suicides before COVID-19 (January 1, 2010 to March 31, 2020), comparing the expected number of suicides both overall and according to age and sex with the observed number of suicides for the remainder of 2020 (April 1, 2020 to December 31, 2020). Results: There was an overall increase in suicides during the first 9 months of the pandemic, with a rate ratio of 2.07 (1.86-2.31). The increase began in the early months of the pandemic and remained stable and high after June 2020. Men and women, younger people (< 45) and older people (≥ 45) were affected. The increase was especially high among older women (RR = 3.33; 2.04-5.15). Conclusions: The increase in suicides in Mexico City is worrying and highlights the need to strengthen economic development, mental health, and well-being programs. Suicides among older women should be closely monitored. There is an urgent need to expand primary health care services to include robust suicide prevention and treatment options.

Antibody and Memory B-Cell Immunity in a Heterogeneously SARS-CoV-2-Infected and -Vaccinated Population.

Global population immunity to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is accumulating through heterogeneous combinations of infection and vaccination. Vaccine distribution in low- and middle-income countries has been variable and reliant on diverse vaccine platforms. We studied B-cell immunity in Mexico, a middle-income country where five different vaccines have been deployed to populations with high SARS-CoV-2 incidences. Levels of antibodies that bound a stabilized prefusion spike trimer, neutralizing antibody titers, and memory B-cell expansion correlated with each other across vaccine platforms. Nevertheless, the vaccines elicited variable levels of B-cell immunity, and the majority of recipients had undetectable neutralizing activity against the recently emergent omicron variant. SARS-CoV-2 infection, experienced before or after vaccination, potentiated B-cell immune responses and enabled the generation of neutralizing activity against omicron and SARS-CoV for all vaccines in nearly all individuals. These findings suggest that broad population immunity to SARS-CoV-2 will eventually be achieved but by heterogeneous paths. IMPORTANCE The majority of studies on SARS-CoV-2 vaccine-elicited immunity and immune evasion have focused on single vaccines corresponding to those distributed in high-income countries. However, in low- and middle-income countries, vaccine deployment has been far less uniform. It is therefore important to determine the levels of immunity elicited by vaccines that have been deployed globally. Such data should help inform policy. Thus, this paper is very much a "real-world" study that focuses on a middle-income country, Mexico, in which five different vaccines based on mRNA, adenovirus, and inactivated-virus platforms have been extensively deployed, while (as documented in our study) SARS-CoV-2 variants with increasing degrees of immune evasiveness have propagated in the Mexican population, culminating in the recent emergence of B.1.1.529 (omicron).

Antibody and memory B-cell immunity in a heterogeneously SARS-CoV-2 infected and vaccinated population.

Global population immunity to SARS-CoV-2 is accumulating through heterogenous combinations of infection and vaccination. Vaccine distribution in low- and middle-income countries has been variable and reliant on diverse vaccine platforms. We studied B-cell immunity in Mexico, a middle-income country where five different vaccines have been deployed to populations with high SARS-CoV-2 incidence. Levels of antibodies that bound a stabilized prefusion spike trimer, neutralizing antibody titers and memory B-cell expansion correlated with each other across vaccine platforms. Nevertheless, the vaccines elicited variable levels of B-cell immunity, and the majority of recipients had undetectable neutralizing activity against the recently emergent omicron variant. SARS-CoV-2 infection, experienced prior to or after vaccination potentiated B-cell immune responses and enabled the generation of neutralizing activity against omicron and SARS-CoV for all vaccines in nearly all individuals. These findings suggest that broad population immunity to SARS-CoV-2 will eventually be achieved, but by heterogenous paths.

Territorial Strategy of Medical Units for Addressing the First Wave of the COVID-19 Pandemic in the Metropolitan Area of Mexico City: Analysis of Mobility, Accessibility and Marginalization.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic has caused an exponential increase in the demand for medical care worldwide. In Mexico, the COVID Medical Units (CMUs) conversion strategy was implemented. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the CMU coverage strategy in the Mexico City Metropolitan Area (MCMA) by territory. MATERIALS: The CMU directory was used, as were COVID-19 infection and mobility statistics and Mexican 2020 census information at the urban geographic area scale. The degree of urban marginalization by geographic area was also considered. METHOD: Using descriptive statistics and the calculation of a CMU accessibility index, population aggregates were counted based on coverage radii. In addition, two regression models are proposed to explain (1) the territorial and temporal trend of COVID-19 infections in the MCMA and (2) the mobility of the COVID-infected population visiting medical units. RESULTS: The findings of the evaluation of the CMU strategy were (1) in the MCMA, COVID-19 followed a pattern of contagion from the urban center to the periphery; (2) given the growth in the number of cases and the overload of medical units, the population traveled greater distances to seek medical care; (3) after the CMU strategy was evaluated at the territory level, it was found that 9 out of 10 inhabitants had a CMU located approximately 7 km away; and (4) at the metropolitan level, the lowest level of accessibility to the CMU was recorded for the population with the highest levels of marginalization, i.e., those residing in the urban periphery.

Cien años de la Escuela de Salud Pública de México, 1922-2022. Un siglo de innovación educativa para responder a los desafíos sanitarios del país.

Not available.

Design of a cluster-randomized trial of the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of metformin on prevention of type 2 diabetes among prediabetic Mexican adults (the PRuDENTE initiative of Mexico City).

INTRODUCTION: Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a global epidemic, and nations are struggling to implement effective healthcare strategies to reduce the burden. While efficacy studies demonstrate that metformin can reduce incident T2D by half among younger, obese adults with prediabetes, its real-world effectiveness are understudied, and its use for T2D prevention in primary care is low. We describe the design of a pragmatic trial to evaluate the incremental effectiveness of metformin, as an adjunct to a simple lifestyle counseling. METHODS: The "Prevención de la Diabetes con Ejercicio, Nutrición y Tratamiento" [Diabetes Prevention with Exercise, Nutrition and Treatment; PRuDENTE, (Spanish acronym)] is a cluster-randomized trial in Mexico City's public primary healthcare system. The study randomly assigns 51 clinics to deliver one of two interventions for 36 months: 1) lifestyle only; 2) lifestyle plus metformin, to 3060 patients ages 30-65 with impaired fasting glucose and obesity. The primary endpoint is incident T2D (fasting glucose ≥126 mg/dL, or HbA1c ≥6.5%). We will also measure a range of implementation-related process outcomes at the clinic-, clinician- and patient-levels to inform interpretations of effectiveness and enable efforts to refine, adapt, adopt and disseminate the model. We will also estimate the cost-effectiveness of metformin as an adjunct to lifestyle counseling in Mexico. DISCUSSION: Findings from this pragmatic trial will generate new translational knowledge in Mexico and beyond, both with respect to metformin's real-world effectiveness among an 'at-risk' population, and uncovering facilitators and barriers to the reach, adoption and implementation of metformin preventive therapy in public primary care settings. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This trial is registered at Clinicaltrials.gov (NCT03194009).

Accesibilidad en salud: revisión sobre niños y niñas con discapacidad en Brasil-Perú-Colombia / Accessibility in the area of health: A review of children with disabilities in Brazil-Peru-Colombia / Acessibilidade à saúde: uma revisão sobre meninos e meninas com descapacidades no Brasil, Perú e Colômbia

Resumen (analítico) La investigación tiene como objetivo identificar los principales problemas de acceso a los servicios de salud de niños y niñas con diversidad funcional en América Latina. Se trata de una revisión sistemática. Se desarrollaron estrategias detalladas para la búsqueda individual en Health, Redalyc, Medline y SciELO entre mayo y junio de 2018. Se incluyeron artículos originales publicados entre enero 2013- julio 2018 en portugués, inglés o español. Se realizaron análisis descriptivos para la categorización de los estudios. Se identificaron 9 artículos, todos transversales de diseño descriptivo. A partir de los resultados obtenidos, quedó evidente que las dificultades de acceso a los servicios de salud están asociadas a la mayor vulnerabilidad a factores demográficos, socioeconómicos, siendo necesario traspasar las barreras existentes a través de la creación y efectividad de políticas públicas que garanticen acceso a la salud.

Abstract (analytical) The research aims to identify the main problems in terms of access to health services for children with disabilities in Latin America. This is a systematic review that involved detailed individual search strategies for Bireme, Redalyc, Medline and SciELO between May and June 2018. Original articles that were published between January 2013 and July 2018 in Portuguese, English and Spanish were reviewed. Descriptive analysis was categorized out to categorize the studies that were reviewed. A total of 9 articles were identified, all with a cross-cutting descriptive design. From the results obtained, it was evident that the difficulties involved in access to health services for this population are associated with greater vulnerability in terms of demographic and socioeconomic factors. It is necessary to overcome existing barriers through the creation and implementation of public policies that guarantee access to health.

Resumo (analítico) A investigação tem como objetivo identificar os principais problemas de acesso aos serviços de saúde de crianças com diversidade funcional na América Latina. Se trata de uma revisão sistemática, onde foram desenvolvidas estratégias detalhadas de busca individual para Bireme, Redalyc, Medline e SciELO entre maio e junho de 2018. Foram incluídos artigos originais publicados entre janeiro de 2013 a julho de 2018 nos idiomas português, inglês ou espanhol. Foram feitas análises descritivas para a categorização dos estudos. Foram identificados 9 artigos, todos transversais de desenho descritivo. A partir dos resultados obtidos, ficou evidente que as dificuldades de acesso aos serviços de saúde estão associadas a maior vulnerabilidade aos fatores demográficos e socioeconômicos sendo necessário traspassar as barreiras existentes através da criação e efetivação de políticas públicas que garantam acesso à saúde.

[The informality of labor and the right to health in Mexico: a critical analysis]. / Informalidad laboral y derecho a la salud en México, un análisis crítico.

In light of the labor conditions defined within the framework of neoliberalism implemented in Mexico, labor dynamics are problematized, the main problems of access to the health and social security system are identified and the systematic violation of rights - especially the right to work, to social security and to health - are discussed. The objective of this article is to contribute with proposals for the construction of a comprehensive, inclusive, healthcare and social security system that contributes to the improvement of the lives of workers.

Frente a las condiciones de trabajo definidas en el marco del neoliberalismo implementado en México, se problematiza las dinámicas laborales, identifica los principales problemas de acceso al sistema de salud y de seguridad social y discute la vulneración sistemática de derechos, principalmente del derecho al trabajo, a la seguridad social y a la salud. Se propone contribuir con propuestas para la construcción de un sistema de salud y seguridad social integral, incluyente y solidario que coadyuve a mejorar la vida de trabajadores y trabajadoras.

Informalidad laboral y derecho a la salud en México, un análisis crítico / The informality of labor and the right to health in Mexico: a critical analysis

Resumen Frente a las condiciones de trabajo definidas en el marco del neoliberalismo implementado en México, se problematiza las dinámicas laborales, identifica los principales problemas de acceso al sistema de salud y de seguridad social y discute la vulneración sistemática de derechos, principalmente del derecho al trabajo, a la seguridad social y a la salud. Se propone contribuir con propuestas para la construcción de un sistema de salud y seguridad social integral, incluyente y solidario que coadyuve a mejorar la vida de trabajadores y trabajadoras.

Abstract In light of the labor conditions defined within the framework of neoliberalism implemented in Mexico, labor dynamics are problematized, the main problems of access to the health and social security system are identified and the systematic violation of rights - especially the right to work, to social security and to health - are discussed. The objective of this article is to contribute with proposals for the construction of a comprehensive, inclusive, healthcare and social security system that contributes to the improvement of the lives of workers.

[A health system's neoliberal reform: evidence from the Mexican case]. / La reforma neoliberal de un sistema de salud: evidencia del caso mexicano.

This study addressed the shaping of Mexico's health system in recent years, with an analysis of the social determination conditioning the system's current formulation, the consequences for the population's living and working conditions, and the technical and legal reform measures that shaped the system's transformation. The article then analyzes the survival of social security institutions and the introduction of an individual insurance model and its current implications and consequences. From the perspective of the right to health, the article compares the measures, resources, and interventions in both health care models and highlights the relevance of the social security system for Popular Insurance. The article concludes that the measures implemented to reform the Mexican health system have failed to achieve the intended results; on the contrary, they have led to a reduction in interventions, rising costs, and a decrease in the installed capacity and professional personnel for the system's operation, thus falling far short of solving the problem, rather aggravating the inequities without solving the system's structural contradictions. Health systems face new challenges, inevitably requiring that the analyses be situated in a broader framework rather than merely focusing on the functional, administrative, and financial operation of the systems in the respective countries.

La reforma neoliberal de un sistema de salud: evidencia del caso mexicano / A health system's neoliberal reform: evidence from the Mexican case / Reforma neoliberal de um sistema de saúde: evidencia do caso mexicano

Resumen: Este trabajo aborda la conformación en los años recientes del sistema de salud en México. Se presenta un análisis desde la determinación social que condiciona su formulación actual, las consecuencias en las condiciones de vida y trabajo de la población, los ejes de la reforma técnico-legal que dieron pauta para su transformación. La permanencia de instituciones de seguridad social y la introducción de un modelo de aseguramiento individual, sus implicaciones y consecuencias observadas hoy día. Desde una perspectiva del derecho a la salud, se contrastan las acciones, recursos e intervenciones de ambos modelos de prestación de servicios, y se observa la relevancia del sistema de seguridad social sobre el Seguro Popular. Se concluye que las soluciones implantadas para reformar el sistema de salud no tienen los resultados postulados y, por el contrario, significan reducción de intervenciones, incremento de costos, disminución de capacidad instalada y de personal profesional para su operación, así, lejos de solucionar el problema, se incrementan las inequidades y no se resuelven las contradicciones estructurales. Existen nuevos desafíos para los sistemas de salud, donde es inevitable situar los análisis en un marco más amplio, y no sólo centrarse en la operación funcional, administrativa y financiera de los sistemas de salud en nuestros países.

Abstract: This study addressed the shaping of Mexico's health system in recent years, with an analysis of the social determination conditioning the system's current formulation, the consequences for the population's living and working conditions, and the technical and legal reform measures that shaped the system's transformation. The article then analyzes the survival of social security institutions and the introduction of an individual insurance model and its current implications and consequences. From the perspective of the right to health, the article compares the measures, resources, and interventions in both health care models and highlights the relevance of the social security system for Popular Insurance. The article concludes that the measures implemented to reform the Mexican health system have failed to achieve the intended results; on the contrary, they have led to a reduction in interventions, rising costs, and a decrease in the installed capacity and professional personnel for the system's operation, thus falling far short of solving the problem, rather aggravating the inequities without solving the system's structural contradictions. Health systems face new challenges, inevitably requiring that the analyses be situated in a broader framework rather than merely focusing on the functional, administrative, and financial operation of the systems in the respective countries.

Resumo: Este trabalho aborda a conformação, nos últimos anos, do sistema de saúde no México. Apresenta uma análise a partir da determinação social que condiciona a sua formulação atual, as consequências sobre as condições de vida e de trabalho da população, as diretrizes da reforma técnico-legal que embasaram a sua transformação. A permanência de instituições de seguridade social e a introdução de um modelo de plano de seguro individual, suas implicações e consequências observadas hoje. Desde a perspectiva do direito à saúde, comparam-se as ações, recursos e intervenções de ambos os modelos de prestação de serviços, e se examina a relevância do sistema de seguridade social com relação ao Seguro Popular. A conclusão é que as soluções implementadas para reformar o sistema de saúde não alcançaram os resultados pretendidos e, ao contrário, redundaram em redução de atos médicos, aumento dos custos, diminuição da capacidade instalada e do número de profissionais para a sua operação. Dessa forma, longe de solucionar o problema, aumentaram as desigualdades e não foram resolvidas as contradições estruturais. Existem novos desafios para os sistemas de saúde, para os quais é inevitável situar as análises em um marco mais amplo, e não apenas focando a operação funcional, administrativa e financeira dos sistemas de saúde em nossos países.

Derecho a la salud en México / Right to health in Mexico

Examina a situación de las condiciones que determinan la salud de la población y analiza las opciones que a corto plazo pueden mejorar la salud de grupos específicos y aliviar sus ingentes necesidades sanitarias

Derecho a la salud en México / Right to health in Mexico

Examina a situación de las condiciones que determinan la salud de la población y analiza las opciones que a corto plazo pueden mejorar la salud de grupos específicos y aliviar sus ingentes necesidades sanitarias.

Determinación social de la salud: desafíos y agendas posibles / Social determinants of health: challenges and possible agendas

La salud/enfermedad (s/e) como parte del proceso vital humano es multidi-mensional y compleja, en tanto que sus manifestaciones individuales y colectivas implican dimensiones psico-biológicas y socioculturales. La perspectiva médico-social y de saludcolectiva (MS/SC) sobre la determinación social de la salud ha permitido profundizar en la comprensión de los procesos generativos que modelan la vida de las colectividades y se expresan en salud, enfermedad y muerte. Esta corriente latinoamericana de pensamientoen salud ha contribuido a ampliar el quehacer socio-sanitario al dotarlo de politicidad y potencia transformadora, al reconocer que la salud de los pueblos tiene su origen en las formas de organización social. En este proceso, la MS/SC enfrenta desafíos epistemoló-gicos, teórico-metodológicos y ético-políticos al cuestionar el actual modelo civilizatorio excluyente y proponer transformaciones capaces de movilizar a múltiples actores a partir de la construcción de agendas por la salud y la vida.

Health-disease (h-d), as a part of the vital human process is a complex and multifaceted entity in itself as it implies sociocultural and psychobiological dimensions. The Socio-Medical and Collective Health Perspective (SM/CH) on the social determinants of health, hasallowed a deeper comprehension about the generative processes modeling the life of collectivities; those processes are expressed in terms of health, disease and death. This Latin-Americancurrent of thought in Health has contributed to broaden the socio-sanitary practice and task yielded so with politicity and transforming potency, acknowledging that peoples health stems from the forms of social organization. In this process, the SM/CH faces epistemological, theore-tical, methodological, political and ethical challenges, confronting along the way the current civilizatory marginalizing model, and bringing about the necessary changes to mobilize multiple social actors towards the setting of agendas on behalf of health and life.

[Inequalities in health in Mexico]. / Inequidades en la salud en México.

This study presents a critical approach on health sector reform in Mexico and its impact on access and equity in state health systems. We discuss the main strategies adopted and made an assessment of its contribution to achieving equity in health, using socioeconomic indicators of health services and interventions for two moments, 1990 y 2002. We conclude that the dynamics of deepening inequalities in the period and the transformation of state health systems do not contribute to the achievement of equity in access.

[Association between types of need, human development index, and infant mortality in Mexico, 2008]. / Asociación de los tipos de carencia y grado de desarrollo humano con la mortalidad infantil en México, 2008.

The aim of this study was to assess the association between different types of economic and social deprivation and infant mortality rates reported in 2008 in Mexico. We conducted an ecological study analyzing the correlation and relative risk between the human development index and levels of social and economic differences in State and national infant mortality rates. There was a strong correlation between higher human development and lower infant mortality. Low schooling and poor housing and crowding were associated with higher infant mortality. Although infant mortality has declined dramatically in Mexico over the last 28 years, the decrease has not been homogeneous, and there are persistent inequalities that determine mortality rates in relation to different poverty levels. Programs with a multidisciplinary approach are needed to decrease infant mortality rates through comprehensive individual and family development.

Asociación de los tipos de carencia y grado de desarrollo humano con la mortalidad infantil en México, 2008 / Association between types of need, human development index, and infant mortality in Mexico, 2008

The aim of this study was to assess the association between different types of economic and social deprivation and infant mortality rates reported in 2008 in Mexico. We conducted an ecological study analyzing the correlation and relative risk between the human development index and levels of social and economic differences in State and national infant mortality rates. There was a strong correlation between higher human development and lower infant mortality. Low schooling and poor housing and crowding were associated with higher infant mortality. Although infant mortality has declined dramatically in Mexico over the last 28 years, the decrease has not been homogeneous, and there are persistent inequalities that determine mortality rates in relation to different poverty levels. Programs with a multidisciplinary approach are needed to decrease infant mortality rates through comprehensive individual and family development.

El objetivo del artículo fue conocer la asociación entre los diferentes tipos de carencia social y económica y los niveles de mortalidad infantil reportados durante el 2008 en México. Se realizó un estudio ecológico, analizando la correlación y el riesgo relativo entre el índice de desarrollo humano y distintos niveles de carencias sociales y económicas con las tasas de mortalidad infantil reportadas a nivel nacional y estatal. Existe una fuerte correlación entre un mayor nivel de desarrollo humano con una menor tasa de mortalidad. La carencia educativa y el atraso en la calidad y espacio de la vivienda se asocian con una mayor tasa de mortalidad infantil. Si bien la mortalidad infantil en México ha disminuido notablemente en los últimos 28 años, su reducción no ha sido homogénea y se mantienen inequidades que determinan las tasas de mortalidad en relación a los niveles diferenciados de pobreza. Es necesario el diseño de programas con una visión transdisciplinaria que permitan disminuir las tasas de mortalidad con el pleno desarrollo de los individuos y sus familias.

[Organization of the drug supply chain in state health services: potential consequences of the public-private mix]. / Organización del abasto de medicamentos en los servicios estatales de salud: potenciales consecuencias de la mezcla público-privada.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the consequences of private outsourcing on the overall supply and filling of prescriptions in state health services. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The research was conducted using quantitative and qualitative techniques in 13 states. The information was collected through interviews and direct observation. The interviews were carried on staff of state health services related to the drug supply chain and users of health services. The quantitative approach examined the percentage of stocked full recipes in a sample of users. RESULTS: States that have opted for the fully outsourced model, and properly monitored this choice, have increased the supply of drugs to their users and guaranteed the supply in the care units in charge. Other states with the outsourced model have multiple problems: direct purchase of drugs not included in the basic drugs catalogue, failure of suppliers and shortage of supplies in the laboratories that provide the company. The main disadvantages identified in all models were: the subordination of the medical criteria to administrative criteria, insufficient planning based on local care needs, heterogeneous procedures, insufficient knowledge of regulations and lack of normativity. CONCLUSION: The results indicate that the incorporation of private providers in the drug supply chain may not be the solution to bring down the shortage faced by health services, especially at the hospital level. The shift to outsourcing models has developed without incorporating evaluation mechanisms and the consequences that this transition can have on state health systems must be investigated more deeply.